Planning for instruction — Unit 2, exam-ready
The planning tools a science teacher needs before entering the classroom: framing aims and objectives, writing them in behavioural terms with Bloom’s Taxonomy, and preparing lesson plans, unit plans, and a pedagogical analysis of the content.
Aims and objectives of teaching science
The first planning question is why we teach at all — and then, precisely, what a learner will achieve today.
Aims
Broad, general, long-term statements of purpose that guide the overall direction of teaching science — what education is meant to achieve for society and the individual over years of schooling.
Answers: “Why do we teach science?”
Objectives
Specific, short-term, precise statements of what a learner should be able to do after a particular lesson or unit.
Answers: “What exactly will the learner achieve today?”
Six aims of teaching science
Knowledge aim
Acquire scientific facts, concepts, principles and laws.
Skill aim
Observation, experimentation, handling apparatus, recording data.
Process / method aim
The scientific method — think logically, question, solve problems systematically.
Attitude aim
Open-mindedness, curiosity, objectivity, respect for evidence.
Application aim
Apply scientific knowledge to solve everyday problems.
Interest aim
Create and sustain interest in science and further study.
Aims by stage
Elementary stage
- Awareness and curiosity about the immediate environment — plants, animals, common objects, natural phenomena
- Basic observation and simple experimentation through hands-on, concrete, activity-based experiences
- Simple scientific vocabulary and the habit of asking “why” and “how”
- Habits of cleanliness, health and safety through science activities
- A foundation for more formal, abstract study later
Secondary stage
- Systematic, organised knowledge of Physics, Chemistry and Biology
- Applying the scientific method to identify and solve problems independently
- Laboratory skills — accuracy and safety in experiments
- Scientific attitude and scientific temper as responsible citizens
- Preparation for higher education and vocational or professional courses
- Understanding the relationship between science, technology and society, including environmental and ethical issues
- Aims = broad, long-term, general purpose. Objectives = specific, short-term, measurable outcomes.
- Six aims: Knowledge, Skill, Process/Method, Attitude, Application, Interest.
- Elementary → environment awareness, curiosity, basic observation.
- Secondary → systematic knowledge, scientific method, lab skills, scientific temper, career readiness.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives
Benjamin Bloom (1956) and his associates classified educational objectives into a hierarchy across three domains. It helps teachers write clear objectives and choose suitable teaching methods and evaluation tools for each level.
Cognitive
Thinking and knowledge
Affective
Feelings, values, attitudes
Psychomotor
Physical and motor skills
Cognitive domain — six levels, simple to complex
Revised by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001). Each step shows the revised name, the original 1956 name, and example action verbs.
Remembering
was: Knowledgedefine, list, name, recall, state
Understanding
was: Comprehensionexplain, describe, summarise, classify
Applying
was: Applicationsolve, demonstrate, use, calculate
Analysing
was: Analysisdifferentiate, compare, categorise, examine
Evaluating
was: Evaluationjudge, justify, critique, assess
Creating
was: Synthesisdesign, construct, formulate, compose
The top two levels are reordered. In the original, Synthesis came before Evaluation; in the revised version, Evaluating comes before Creating, since creating something new is considered the highest-order thinking skill. Names also changed from nouns to verbs.
Affective domain — five levels (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia)
Deals with feelings, values, interests and attitudes.
Receiving
Aware of and willing to attend to a stimulus — e.g. listening attentively to a science demonstration
Responding
Actively participating — e.g. willingly performing a lab activity
Valuing
Commitment to a value — e.g. concern for environmental conservation
Organisation
Arranging values into a system, resolving conflicts — e.g. safety over speed in the lab
Characterisation
Acting consistently on internalised values — e.g. habitually practising scientific honesty
Psychomotor domain — levels (Simpson/Harrow)
Deals with physical movement, coordination and motor skills — very relevant to laboratory work.
Perception
Using the senses to guide action — noticing a colour change in a reaction
Set
Readiness to act — arranging apparatus before an experiment
Guided response
Performing under guidance, by imitation — handling a microscope as demonstrated
Mechanism
A learned response with some confidence — using a burette correctly unaided
Complex overt response
Skilful, efficient performance — a multi-step titration done accurately
Adaptation & origination
Modifying skills for new situations; creating new movement patterns
Some textbooks list Adaptation and Origination as two separate levels (Simpson’s seven-level version). Follow the number your prescribed textbook or teacher uses.
- Three domains: Cognitive (thinking), Affective (feelings/values), Psychomotor (motor skills).
- Cognitive (revised): Remember → Understand → Apply → Analyse → Evaluate → Create.
- Affective: Receiving → Responding → Valuing → Organisation → Characterisation.
- Psychomotor: Perception → Set → Guided Response → Mechanism → Complex Overt Response → Adaptation/Origination.
Writing objectives in behavioural terms
A behavioural objective describes what the learner will be able to do — an observable, measurable action — as a result of instruction. It does not describe what the teacher will teach.
Mager’s ABCD model
Audience
Who is the learner? “The student…”
Behaviour
What observable action? “will list”, “will demonstrate”
Condition
Under what conditions? “given a diagram of a plant cell”
Degree
To what standard? “with 90% accuracy”, “without error”
Use measurable verbs
- list
- identify
- solve
- demonstrate
Avoid vague words
- know
- understand
- appreciate
They cannot be directly observed or measured.
- Behavioural objectives follow Mager’s ABCD model — Audience, Behaviour, Condition, Degree.
- Always use measurable action verbs; avoid “know”, “understand”, “appreciate”.
Lesson planning
A lesson plan is a detailed, written description prepared in advance, outlining objectives, content, methods, activities, teaching aids and evaluation for a single teaching period. It is the teacher’s roadmap.
Why lesson planning matters
- Gives the teacher confidence and clarity about what to teach and how
- Ensures teaching proceeds in a logical, organised sequence
- Helps wise selection of teaching aids and methods
- Saves classroom time; avoids repetition or omission of important content
- Relates new content to students’ previous knowledge
- Provides a basis for judging whether objectives were achieved
- Lets the teacher anticipate difficulties and plan for individual differences, including students with intellectual disabilities
Basic steps / general format of a lesson plan
General objectives
Broad aims the lesson contributes to.
Specific / behavioural objectives
Precise, measurable outcomes expected from this lesson.
Teaching aids
Materials, charts, models or apparatus to be used.
Previous knowledge
What students already know that will be linked to the new topic.
Introduction
A motivating question, story or activity to gain attention.
Statement of aim
Telling students what will be learnt in the lesson.
Presentation
The main teaching-learning activity — explaining, demonstrating, questioning, developing content step by step.
Blackboard summary
A neat summary of key points written as the lesson progresses.
Recapitulation / evaluation
Questions or a short activity to check whether objectives were achieved.
Home assignment
Follow-up work to reinforce learning.
The Herbartian steps behind this format
Three kinds of lesson, three kinds of plan
- Begin with a simple, relatable question or example from daily experience.
- Present the concept step by step — simple to complex, known to unknown.
- Use clear, correct language, suitable examples and analogies for the learners’ level.
- Support with the blackboard, charts or simple diagrams.
- Ask probing questions throughout to check understanding and keep students engaged.
- Summarise the key concept and check understanding with a short recap activity.
- State the purpose of the demonstration before starting.
- Arrange, test and check all apparatus and materials beforehand.
- Perform slowly and make sure it is visible to everyone — a raised platform, or move around the room.
- Explain each step as you perform it, linking the action to the scientific principle.
- Involve students — ask them to predict outcomes before revealing the result, and to record observations.
- Follow strict safety precautions, especially with heat, chemicals or glass apparatus.
- Conclude with a discussion connecting the result to the concept being taught.
- Briefly revise the formula, law or principle needed.
- State clearly the given data and what is to be found.
- Solve a model problem on the board, explaining each step, the reasoning, and the units.
- Stress correct substitution, unit consistency, and neat stepwise presentation.
- Give similar practice problems to solve independently or in pairs.
- Check work, correct common errors, and clarify misconceptions.
- Lesson plan = a detailed roadmap for one teaching period.
- Format follows the Herbartian steps: Introduction → Presentation → Comparison → Generalisation → Application → Recapitulation.
- Explanation → concept-based, simple to complex, uses questioning.
- Demonstration → teacher performs, students observe, safety essential.
- Numerical → revise formula, solve a model sum step by step, then practice problems.
Unit planning
A unit is a fairly large, meaningful chunk of subject matter organised around a central topic or theme — “Our Solar System”, “Living and Non-Living Things” — that may take several periods. A unit plan is the comprehensive advance plan for teaching that whole unit across multiple lessons.
Lesson plan vs. unit plan
| Basis | Lesson plan | Unit plan |
|---|---|---|
| Time covered | A single teaching period (35–45 minutes) | A complete topic over several periods or weeks |
| Content | A small, specific part | A broad, meaningful topic as a whole |
| Purpose | Day-to-day teaching | Advance planning for a whole topic or theme |
| Scope | Narrower | Broader — made up of several lesson plans |
Format of a unit plan
1 · Title of the unit
The main topic or theme.
2 · General objectives
Broad aims the unit should achieve.
3 · Specific objectives
Precise, measurable learning outcomes.
4 · Content breakdown
The unit divided logically into sub-topics or lessons.
5 · Activities / methods
Lecture, demonstration, discussion, project or activity for each sub-topic.
6 · Aids / resources
Charts, models, lab equipment, audio-visual aids, reference books.
7 · Time allocation
Number of periods for each sub-topic.
8 · Evaluation
Oral questions, written tests, assignments, practicals to check unit objectives.
- Unit = a broad, meaningful topic; unit plan = the advance plan for teaching it across several periods.
- A unit plan is made up of a series of connected lesson plans.
- Format: Title, General Objectives, Specific Objectives, Content Breakdown, Methods/Activities, Teaching Aids, Time Allocation, Evaluation.
Pedagogical analysis
Pedagogical analysis is the systematic, thorough analysis of a piece of content — a topic or chapter — before teaching it, in terms of its concepts, teaching points, methods, aids and evaluation. It bridges the subject matter and the teaching-learning process, helping the teacher decide what to teach and how.
Need and importance
- Gives the teacher complete mastery and clarity over the content
- Breaks a topic into smaller, teachable concepts and teaching points in logical order
- Identifies the most suitable methods, activities and aids for each concept
- Anticipates difficulties and misconceptions students may face
- Helps select evaluation tools matched to the objectives
- Makes teaching learner-centred, systematic and goal-oriented — not just “covering the textbook”
Pedagogical analysis is especially useful in inclusive classrooms because it lets the teacher plan modifications and adaptations for learners with intellectual disabilities in advance.
Guidelines — the eight steps in order
Select the topic
Choose the topic or chapter from the syllabus.
State objectives
General and specific — what students should know, do or value.
List the concepts
Break the topic into main concepts and sub-concepts.
Identify teaching points
Facts, terms, principles for each concept, simple to complex.
Check previous knowledge
What students must already know.
Choose methods & aids
Lecture, discussion, demonstration, activity; charts, models, real objects, ICT.
Anticipate difficulties
Common misconceptions and how to address them.
Plan evaluation
Oral, written, assignment or practical, matched to objectives.
- Pedagogical analysis is done before teaching, and forms the basis for lesson and unit plans.
- Sequence: Select topic → State objectives → List concepts → Identify teaching points → Check previous knowledge → Choose methods/aids → Anticipate difficulties → Plan evaluation.
- Especially valuable for planning adaptations for learners with intellectual disabilities.
Last-minute revision sheet
Ten minutes before the exam? Read these five lines.
| Topic | One-line takeaway |
|---|---|
| 2.1 | Aims = broad, long-term; objectives = specific, measurable. Six aims: Knowledge, Skill, Process, Attitude, Application, Interest. |
| 2.2 | Three domains. Cognitive: Remember → Understand → Apply → Analyse → Evaluate → Create. Objectives follow Mager’s ABCD; avoid “know/understand”. |
| 2.3 | Lesson plan = one period; Herbartian steps; explanation, demonstration and numerical lessons each have their own sequence. |
| 2.4 | Unit plan = whole topic over several periods; eight-part format; made up of lesson plans. |
| 2.5 | Pedagogical analysis = analyse content before teaching; eight steps; vital for adaptations in inclusive classrooms. |
Question bank with answer outlines
Tap a question to reveal a model answer outline. Write your own answer first, then compare.
- Systematic, organised knowledge of Physics, Chemistry, Biology
- Applying the scientific method to solve problems independently
- Laboratory skills with accuracy and safety
- Scientific attitude and scientific temper
- Remembering — define, list, name
- Understanding — explain, describe, summarise
- Applying — solve, demonstrate, calculate
- Analysing — differentiate, compare, examine
- Evaluating — judge, justify, critique
- Creating — design, construct, formulate
- State purpose; arrange and test apparatus beforehand
- Perform slowly and visibly, explaining each step
- Involve students — predict, observe, record
- Follow safety precautions
- Conclude with discussion linking result to concept
- Time: one period (35–45 min) vs. several periods or weeks
- Content: small specific part vs. a broad, meaningful topic
- Purpose: day-to-day teaching vs. advance planning of a theme
- Scope: narrower vs. broader; a unit plan is made of lesson plans
- Mastery of content; topic broken into concepts and teaching points
- Suitable methods, aids and evaluation identified
- Anticipates difficulties and misconceptions
- Learner-centred; useful for adaptations in inclusive classrooms
- Introduction: meaning of aims vs. objectives
- General aims: knowledge, skill, process, attitude, application, interest
- Elementary-stage aims with examples (environment, hands-on activities, health and safety habits)
- Secondary-stage aims with examples (lab skills, scientific method, career readiness)
- Conclusion: elementary builds the foundation for secondary
- Introduction: Bloom, 1956; purpose of the taxonomy
- Cognitive domain — six levels with action verbs (original vs. revised)
- Affective domain — five levels with science examples
- Psychomotor domain — levels with lab examples
- Behavioural objectives: Mager’s ABCD and the human-eye example; measurable verbs vs. vague words
- Meaning and importance of a lesson plan
- Ten-step general format; Herbartian steps
- Explanation lesson — simple to complex, questioning
- Demonstration lesson — purpose, visibility, prediction, safety
- Numerical lesson — revise formula, model problem, practice
- Meaning of a unit and unit plan, with an example unit
- Eight components of the format
- Comparison table with lesson plan (time, content, purpose, scope)
- Conclusion: a unit plan is built from connected lesson plans
- Meaning: analysis of content before teaching; bridge between content and teaching
- Need: mastery, sequencing, methods and aids, anticipating difficulties, evaluation, inclusive planning
- Eight guideline steps, in order
- Conclusion: the basis for lesson and unit plans
Two habits that win marks in this unit
For questions on Bloom’s Taxonomy, always mention both the level name and at least one action verb or example for that level. Examiners specifically look for this pairing when awarding marks.
Pair every level with a verb
“Applying — solve” scores more than “Applying” alone.
Use the sequence words
For planning questions, write the steps in their proper order — the order itself is often what is being marked.
Give one worked example
The human-eye ABCD objective, or a starch-in-a-leaf demonstration, turns a definition into an explanation.
Add the inclusion angle
Where relevant, one line on adaptations for learners with intellectual disabilities shows applied understanding.
